Sounds of heavy artillery rattled through the town of Bunagana in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), near the border with Uganda, in the early hours of May 25.
Within a short while, scores of Congolese civilians had rushed into Uganda. This exodus continued up into the mid-morning, with people carrying basic household items including mattresses, jerricans and kitchenware as if they were headed to a destination where such things might not be provided.
Some men were seen driving sheep and goats across the border, followed by their family members. As they entered Uganda, security personnel from both countries attempted to screen the civilians to make sure that M23 fighters were not mingling among the fleeing civilians.
Thousands of people have been displaced after they fled ongoing clashes between the Congolese army and M23 fighters
Great disruption
This has been the pattern ever since fighting broke out between government forces and M23 fighters on March 24 this year, the same week Uganda and the DRC commenced a road project to link the commercial hubs of Bukavu and Goma.
An estimated population of 80,000 — mostly women and children — is being affected. Some say they are getting used to fleeing temporarily to Uganda at short notice but that this has greatly disrupted their lives and livelihoods.
Ugandan civilians have generally been welcoming to their fleeing neighbors and are ready to offer basic assistance to them. But the situation is causing a strain on their resources and infrastructure, especially in terms of water and sanitation.
Water scarcity also sometimes forces DRC civilians to risk their lives amidst the gunfire, crossing back home to fetch at least some for their families.
The mayor of Bunagana, Ismail Ndayambaje, says he fears sanitation problems might lead to an epidemic.
"They urinate and defecate everywhere. If we get mobile toilets, they will help us to control the sanitation situation," he said.
Due to water scarcity, some DRC civilians are forced to sneak back to their country to fetch water despite the sounds of gunfire rending the air.
Most DRC civilians have refused to go to the temporary settlement.
Little-loved camp
Efforts by humanitarian agencies such as the UNHCR and the Red Cross together with the Uganda government to settle the fleeing civilians at the Nyakabande camp, about 20 km (12.5 miles) from Bunagana in the Ugandan town of Kisoro, have been met with resistance from some Congolese. They don't want to be registered as refugees and are concerned about the poor conditions in tarpaulin dormitories.
Pascal Muto, a family head who is using his rusty bicycle to do odd jobs in Bunagana, said, "We shall just stay around the border, and when the fighting takes a pause we go back to our gardens and harvest food for our children. We fear living in camps because they are congested and lack sufficient food, water and medicine."
Security worries
There are fears that security in Bunagana will deteriorate, since most DRC civilians have refused to go to the temporary settlement.
Sheikh Idrisa Uwangye, a hotelier and businessman, said: "We are getting worried about our security and that of our businesses, as the DRC civilians, especially the youth, may be tempted to engage in petty crime for survival”
Sheikh Idrissa adds that business in Bunagana has greatly suffered, as cargo vehicles headed into DRC divert their journeys, and tourists have been scared away from the gorilla-trekking hub of Kisoro.
"Nobody can allow their cargo vehicles to drive through an area of where security is uncertain. So there are no cargo vehicles crossing from Uganda to DRC via Bunagana at the moment. Tourists are also scared of coming to Kisoro like they used to. Our hospitality business has come to a standstill," he said.
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Congo pygmies move deeper into the forest to escape extinction
Pygmies seek refuge deep in the forest
Moguio, a young Aka-Mbenzele pygmy, used to roam freely through the forest to hunt and gather, following the seasons. But then his community in the north of the Republic of Congo became threatened by landowners, forestry and mining. They decided to abandon their nomadic tradition and settle in one place deeper in the forest.
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Congo pygmies move deeper into the forest to escape extinction
Among Africa's last hunter-gatherers
Pygmies are one of Africa's last nomadic hunter-gatherer communities. Traditionally, they lived in a vast region spanning the entire Congo Basin. Around 900,000 pygmies still live across the rainforests of nine Central African countries. But the loss of habitat makes it harder for young men like Moguio to maintain their hunting traditions.
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Congo pygmies move deeper into the forest to escape extinction
Way of life at risk
In most regions of Central Africa, pygmies no longer have free access to their traditional lands and are unable to carry out traditional activities. Pygmies share the rituals and secrets of the forest to their children from the day they are born. The Aka-Mbenzel community worries they won't be able to pass down their knowledge to the next generations.
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Congo pygmies move deeper into the forest to escape extinction
Longa, a shelter against discrimination
The village of Longa is located deep within the rainforest of the Likouala Department. Here, community life continues quietly, away from ethnic discrimination. The Republic of Congo was the first African country to pass a law protecting pygmies' rights; regardless, communities still suffer severe social exclusion. A 2019 human rights report by the UN confirmed such ongoing discrimination.
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Congo pygmies move deeper into the forest to escape extinction
In harmony with the forest
Pygmies are often looked down upon in Congolese society. They are seen as backward by the Bantu ethnic group, which historically kept them as slaves. Pygmies have a very close relationship with the rainforest environment — which is worshiped as a deity. They live in symbiosis with nature, gathering fruits and insects, and hunting; and protecting the environment they rely upon.
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Congo pygmies move deeper into the forest to escape extinction
Climate-regulating forest at risk
Pygmies are entirely dependent on the forest of the Congo Basin forest for their livelihood. It's the second-largest rainforest on the planet, soaking up 1.2 billion tonnes of CO2 each year — making it crucial for regulation of the global climate. The rainforest is endangered by logging and clearing for large-scale agriculture. Mining and urbanization are also threats.
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Congo pygmies move deeper into the forest to escape extinction
Formidable hunters and forest guides
The Aka-Mbenzele can navigate in the forest even at night. Adept at evading predators, they are gifted hunters. The group lives in one of the world's most important natural sanctuaries, which covers 240 million hectares (about 927,000 square miles) and is home to more than 10,000 types of plants and thousands of animals.
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Congo pygmies move deeper into the forest to escape extinction
Abused by forest rangers
Longa pygmies still set up camps in the forest when they go hunting or search for fruit and insects. But in other areas of the Congo Basin forest, nature reserve guards have attacked and burned pygmy settlements, accusing them of being poachers. In 2016, the indigenous rights group Survival International accused WWF and African Parks of hundreds of cases of abuse against Indigenous peoples.
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Congo pygmies move deeper into the forest to escape extinction
The injustice of militarized conservation
"In the past, we didn't understand the concept of the forest having owners. We could move freely without limitations," explains Ndiky. UN investigations have confirmed allegations of abuses and human rights violations against pygmies by environmental groups. This raises concerns around creating nature reserves on traditional Indigenous lands, and militarization of the guarding of such reserves.
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Congo pygmies move deeper into the forest to escape extinction
Mobe, god of the forest
As sunset approaches, a representation of the pygmies' forest god Mobe often shows up in the village of Longa. The community asks the deity to donate fruit and assure good hunting. "They have protected their world for years. I'm sure we couldn't preserve the forest without their wisdom," says Congolese ethnologist Sorel Eta.
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Congo pygmies move deeper into the forest to escape extinction
Forbidding access
But pygmies in the Congolese department of Sangha are losing access to their ancestral lands. They are being forced to settle near Bantu-majority urban centers. Armel is a Baka pygmy who now works on a cacao farm. "First the loggers and miners came, then the eco-guards. I think they want to kill our culture. It's only a matter of time."
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Congo pygmies move deeper into the forest to escape extinction
Keeping nature in balance
When pygmies harvest honey, they make sure they leave behind enough for the bees to survive. They take care to only take what they need; others could learn from them. Over the past two decades, at least 64.7 million hectares of humid primary forest has been lost globally.
Author: Marco Simoncelli
Allegations of Rwandan involvement
But both Ugandans and DRC civilians are most concerned about the renewed and sustained capacity of the M23 to engage government forces. The rebels are now daring to attack their bases and those of the UN peace-keeping forces, MONUSCO.
Pierre Kisunzu, a livestock farmer, blames the poor security situation on Rwanda — an allegation that has been echoed by civil society in DRC and even the government spokesperson and minister for information, Patrick Muyaya, but strongly denied by Rwandan authorities.
"Our forces are not fighting M23," Kisunzu said. "They are fighting Rwandan forces. Rwanda is the one destabilizing us and we are tired of this. DRC has joined the East African Community (EAC). The regional leaders should intervene."
At a recent meeting of the EAC in the Kenyan capital, Nairobi, the leaders of four out of the six member countries — including Uganda, Burundi and DRC — came up with a resolution that all fighting groups in eastern DRC should surrender their arms and agree to talks with the DRC government.
Edited by: Timothy Jones